This biography describes Julian Schwinger's life as well as his work. The treatment of his scientific work is scholarly and well done. The challenge faced by this book is well stated in the preface: "Julian Schwinger was one of the most important and influential scientists of the 20th century...yet even among physicists recognition of his fundamental contributions remains limited." This is all the more remarkable since Schwinger had more than 70 students, many of whom became very distinguished, including three Nobel laureates.
Climbing the Mountain confronts this challenge by a very extensive discussion of Schwinger's manifold contributions. On the other hand one may still ask how it is possible that C N Yang can recall that when he entered the University of Chicago in 1946 as a graduate student, Julian Schwinger was already a legend (even before he had published his monumental papers on quantum electrodynamics), while in the year 2000 so little is known about Schwinger and so much is known about Feynman.
The answer lies partly in the personalities of the two men, but also in the beautifully simple and powerful diagrammatic notation invented by Feynman (which, in Schwinger's words, "like the silicon chip, would bring computation to the masses") and finally his separation from the mainstream in his later years.
The most important part of the Schwinger-Feynman story is summarized by the Michigan Summer Schools of 1948 and 1949. In 1948 Schwinger first described his breakthrough in QED to a wider audience, including Dyson, Kroll, Lee and Yang. It was then that Dyson wrote home that in a few months we shall have forgotten what pre-Schwinger physics was like.
In the following 1949 Michigan lectures, Feynman described his version of QED, but at that time he was unable to deal with vacuum polarization and it was not generally clear how much he had been able to accomplish.
By contrast, Schwinger had presented an essentially complete package: a manifestly covariant theory with which he had calculated in lowest order all the previously inaccessible consequences of QED. He had not only climbed the mountain but, more importantly, had shown that it could be climbed. Shorter routes were subsequently found. In the third year of the Michigan series, Dyson lectured and showed that the Schwinger theory and the completed Feynman theory were equivalent. This history, as well as the parallel work of Tomonaga, is well described in this book.
The Schwinger theory of 1948, while adequate for its original purpose, was, like every first invention, relatively crude and could not easily be pushed to higher order. Therefore during the 1950s he developed increasingly powerful calculational techniques. To this period belong the Schwinger action principle and the extensive use of Green's functions and functional techniques that are now part of the standard literature.
During the 1960s Schwinger began a total reconstruction of quantum field theory that he named source theory. Here he was attempting to replace the operator field theory, to which he had contributed so much, by a philosophy and methodology that eliminated all infinite quantities. He did in fact succeed in constructing an infinity-free formalism that was also receptive to new experimental information and new theoretical ideas. It was not simply a programme: Schwinger and his UCLA source theory group, K Milton and colleagues, showed that it was a very effective calculational tool. Source theory has not until now found extensive use in the general theoretical community, although it has elements in common with S Weinberg's use of phenomenological Lagrangians. Schwinger's determination to pursue this work for about 10 years led to his partial eclipse. Milton is obviously well qualified to review this period.
One of the more interesting chapters is entitled "Electroweak Unification and Foreshadowing of the Standard Model". Not so well known is Schwinger's role in the development of the electroweak theory. In 1941 he made the amazingly prescient remark that if the significant mass scale for nuclear beta-decay were of the order of several tens of nuclear masses, then there would be the possibility of an intermediate vector theory with a coupling of the order of alpha. The theory suggested by this numerology was essentially realized in 1957 in his beautiful paper "A Theory of the Fundamental Interactions" (1957 Ann. Phys.2 407). Schwinger comments on this paper (82) in the selected papers (edited by Flato et al.):
"A speculative paper that was remarkably on target: VA weak interaction, two neutrinos, charged intermediate vector meson, dynamical unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions, scale invariance, chiral transformations, mass generation through vacuum expectation value of scalar field. Concerning the idea of unifying the weak and electromagnetic interactions, Rabi once reported to me: 'They hate it'."
However, he was convinced and proposed a similar model to his student, Glashow. Thanks to the efforts of Glashow, Weinberg, Salam and 't Hooft the standard electroweak SU(2) ? U(1) theory, bearing enormous similarity to Schwinger's paper of 1957, was born. The 1957 paper might well have led directly to the standard electroweak theory if it had not become bogged down in the infamous morass of 13 flawed experiments that seemed to imply that the beta-interaction was not VA.
Schwinger's independence of the mainstream is discussed in this biography and by many others including Schweber. It is said that he didn't like "conversational physics" but that meant only that he didn't like conversations unless they interested him. In fact he was quite open to new ideas.
The more accurate view is that he was simply an independent thinker who guarded his time and set his own goals, toward which he worked intensely and constantly. Much of his work he made no effort to publish. For some of his work, like the Bethe-Salpeter equation and the TCP theorem, he received no recognition.
It is arguable that the creativity of an original mind such as Schwinger's or Dirac's would have been enhanced by more interaction with others in later years. In Schwinger's case, in spite of the undeniable handicaps of isolation, the following assessment appears in the Festschrift published on the occasion of his 60th birthday: "His work during the 44 years preceding his 60th birthday extends to almost every frontier of modern theoretical physics. He has made far-reaching contributions to nuclear, particle and atomic physics, to statistical mechanics, to classical electrodynamics and to general relativity. Many of the mathematical techniques he developed can be found in every theorist's arsenal...He is one of the prophets and pioneers in the uses of gauge theories...Schwinger's influence, however, extends beyond his papers and books. His course lectures and their derivatives constitute the substance of graduate physics courses throughout the world, and in addition to directing about 70 doctoral theses, he is now the ancestor of at least four generations of physicists...The influence of Julian Schwinger on the physics of his time has been profound."
Julian Schwinger was born on 12th February 1918 in New York City. The principal direction of his life was fixed at an early age by an intense awareness of physics, and its study became an all-engrossing activity. To judge by a first publication, he debuted as a professional physicist at the age of sixteen. He was allowed to progress rapidly through the public school system of New York City. Through the kind interest of some friends, and especially I.I. Rabi of Columbia University, he transferred to that institution, where he completed his college education. Although his thesis had been written some two or three years earlier, it was in 1939 that he received the Ph.D. degree. For the next two years he was at the University of California, Berkeley, first as a National Research Fellow and then as assistant to J.R. Oppenheimer. The outbreak of the Pacific war found Schwinger as an Instructor, teaching elementary physics to engineering students at Purdue University.
War activities were largely confined to the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. Being a confirmed solitary worker, he became the night research staff. More scientific influences were also at work. He first approached electromagnetic radar problems as a nuclear physicist, but soon began to think of nuclear physics in the language of electrical engineering. That would eventually emerge as the effective range formulation of nuclear scattering. Then, being conscious of the large microwave powers available, Schwinger began to think about electron accelerators, which led to the question of radiation by electrons in magnetic fields. In studying the latter problem he was reminded, at the classical level, that the reaction of the electron's field alters the properties of the particle, including its mass. This would be significant in the intensive developments of quantum electrodynamics, which were soon to follow. With the termination of the war Dr. Schwinger accepted an appointment as Associate Professor at Harvard University. Two years later he became full Professor. That was also the year of his marriage to Clarice Carrol of Boston.
In subsequent years, he worked in a number of directions, but there was a pattern of concentration on general theoretical questions rather than specific problems of immediate experimental concern, which were nearer to the center ot hls earlier work. A speculative approach to physics has its dangers, but it can have its rewards. Schwinger was particularly pleased by an anticipation, early in 1957, of the existence of two different neutrinos associated, respectively, with the electron and the muon. This has been confirmed experimentally only rather recently. A related and somewhat earlier speculation, that all weak interactions are transmitted by heavy, charged, unit-spin particles still awaits a decisive experimental test. Schwinger's policy of finding theoretical virtues in experimentally unknown particles has culminated recently in a revived concern with magnetically charged particles, which may also be involved in the understanding of strong interactions.
In later years, Schwinger has followed his own advice about the practical importance of a phenomenological theory of particles. He has invented and systematically developed source theory, which deals uniformly with strongly interacting particles, photons, and gravitons, thus providing a general approach to all physical phenomena. This work has been described in two volumes published under the title "Particles, Sources, and Fields".
Awards and other honors include the first Einstein Prize (1951), the U.S. National Medal of Science (1964), honorary D.Sc. degrees from Purdue University (1961) and Harvard University (1962), and the Nature of Light Award of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1949). Prof. Schwinger is a member of the latter body, and a sponsor of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
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